how will we survive?

Tanzania’s unemployment rate increases - ILO 2005
-12-21 09:01:26 By Pacifique Nkeshimana, Bagamoyo

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) says unemployment and underemployment rates in Tanzania have increased over the past decade. Speaking at the three-day sensitisation workshop for the media on new labour laws and social dialogue for productivity enhancement and poverty reduction in Bagamoyo on Monday, Ali Ibrahim, the ILO Director for Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia said that analysis from the last Labour force survey for Tanzania indicates that the unemployment and underemployment rates increased over the past ten years at a time when the economic growth rate almost doubled. ”Urban unemployment rates attained levels of over 20 per cent and youth unemployment attained over 40 per cent,” he said. He said that the household budget survey report also revealed that in spite of the relatively rapid economic growth, poverty levels in the rural areas did not decline significantly although significant declines were recorded in some urban areas. ’These trends combined with widening distribution concerns may pose problems for the future sustainability of the current growth process if current trends are not reserved vigorously,’ he said. Though, he said that Tanzania needs to be congratulated for its own economic growth achievements in the past decade, which averaged about 5 per cent per annum, it is still about 60 per cent higher than the African average. Said he: ’The estimates of growth of the economy for 2004 and 2005 in Tanzania at about 6 to 7 percent per annum are about 50 per cent higher than the current improved African average.’ He added that Tanzania is therefore increasingly being recognised as one of Africa’s success stories in the development process. ’As the nation marches forward with confidence into the future and projects growth rates of 8 to 10 per cent per annum in the next five years as indicated in the national strategy for growth and poverty reduction (MKUKUTA), there is a need for deep reflection on the character and pattern of the growth achieved in the past and the implications for the future arising therefrom,’ he said. He also said that the employment should be at the centre of all development projects so as to enable Tanzania achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). He advised the government to start investing in human resources because a nation that cannot develop its human resources and utilize them fully and effectively in the world of work cannot achieve sustainable development. He said that the productive employment is important in order to reduce poverty.
SOURCE: Guardian

10,000 teachers’ jobs announced By Damas Kanyabwoya, DodomaThe Government of United Republic of Tanzania yesterday announced emergency steps to fill nearly 10,000 teaching jobs created in fast-expanding secondary schools.Unemployed Form VI leavers with a third division or higher are among those targeted for the positions, the Minister for Education and Vocational Training, Mrs Margaret Sitta, announced in Parliament yesterday.The government has set aside Sh8 billion in the 2006/07 Budget to finance the fire-fighting strategy to cater for the recent jump in secondary schools and student enrolment under the successful Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP).Mrs Sitta told Parliament that the country needed 9,500 new secondary school teachers to cater for the educational needs for this year. But only 3,707 teachers graduated from teachers’ colleges and the University of Dar es Salaam this year, leaving a shortfall of 5,793 teachers.“To deal with this acute shortage of teachers this year the government has devised a short term mechanism that includes providing a one-month special teaching training course to 3,500 form six leavers whose passing levels are Division III or higher,” she said. The crash courses will be carried out at Butimba, Mtwara, Morogoro, Monduli, Tabora, Tukuyu and Korogwe teachers’ colleges.Additionally, the government will also extend for two years the contract of 250 retiring teachers who are still able and willing to continue teaching. The government is also planning to employ 260 graduating university students from other fields other than education and provide them with teaching education later in order to reduce the shortage of teachers, she said. “The government will continue to devise similar strategies and programmes to cater for increasing demands of teachers in the country,” she said.The SEDP, which was started in 2004, has made it possible for 49 percent of last year’s primary school leavers or 243,359 students to join secondary school by March 2006 surpassing this year’s target of 40 percent.Mrs Sitta said that since the programme started, the number of public secondary schools in the country has almost tripled from 649 schools in 2003 to 1,699 in May 2006. In the three years of SEDP alone 1,050 schools have been built. “One lesson we have learnt from this dramatic increase of secondary schools is that whenever there is unwavering leadership and a positive public responseTanzanians can perform wonders for the benefit of the whole nation,” she said.
Jun 17th, 2006 - 07:46:22 Kaanaeli Kaale
Workshop Report on Facing Youth Unemployment in Tanzania 1. The Workshop on “Facing Youth Unemployment in Tanzania: Challenges and the Way Forward” was held at the National College of Tourism- Dar es Salaam, from 29 to 30 March, 2006.The Workshop was organized by the National Youth Information Centre (NICE), in collaboration with the Foundation for Civil Societies. 2. Youth makes up more than 40 per cent of the world’s total unemployed. Forced by poverty and the lack of possibilities for better jobs, many young people in Tanzania have no alternative but to turn to informal activities to earn income. With economic growth being insufficient to absorb new labour force entrants, there is a danger that informal work will become the only option for large numbers of young people, thereby making the objective of a decent job for all increasingly unavailable.3. In 2004 urban unemployment in Tanzania was rated at 20 percent and youth unemployment was at 40 percent, according to ILO statistics. That Tanzania is the leading country with young female neither in school nor unemployment in Africa 64% and the second with 39 percent of youth neither in school nor in employment- Gora Mboup 20044. According to the integrated Labour Force Survey (2002) out of estimated total labour force of 17.9 million people 65% are young men and women between the age of 15 and 35. The survey also revealed that unemployment for the whole country is 12.9% and the majority of the unemployed are living in urban areas. While 46.5% of unemployed labour force is living in Dar es Salaam alone, other urban areas have 25.5% and in the rural areas unemployment rate is 8.4%. The unemployment rate for young people aged 18 to 34 is 8.6% in rural and 41.4% in the urban areas.5. The objectives of this project are:(i) Assess current policies/programmes for youth employment, focusing on the 4 main aspects including youth employability, equal opportunities, entrepreneurship and job creation(ii) Encourage/support the development of practical strategies for programme development and implementation to improve youth employability, equal opportunities, and entrepreneurship with support from the government and/or Private Sector i.e. financial institutions, private companies etc.(iii) To develop concrete ideas to contribute to short, medium and long term development of youths in Tanzania as well as to create institutional and technical contacts between the government and the youths.
In his welcoming remarks, Mr. Chrispin Mwansanga, the Executive Director of National Youth Information Centre (NICE), He told participant that unemployment problem requires two types of actions, Curative and preventive action. He concluded his remarks by emphasizing that youth unemployment is a serious problem which requires active participation of all stakeholders and that in this workshop youth should come up with realistic and practical solutions.

5. Summary of papers13. Mr. Bashiru Ally, Assistant Lecturer at the Department of Political Science and Public Administration at the University of Dar es Salaam presented a paper on “The significance of political will, in solving Youth unemployment”. The presenter, among other things, highlighted social, economical and political changes in Tanzania since independence to date in relation to employment matters. He showed concern regarding liberal policies emulated by the government because they leave employment to be determined by the market. He suggested that there should be a mechanism through which such policies are adjusted accordingly to fit into our environment. The presenter further added that most of the Tanzanians are poor and that liberal policies would do much harm to the majority, a big proportion being the youths. He insisted that good governance and strong political will by leaders is the most important issue in combating youth unemployment. He finally praised the current governments’ willingness to solve the current unemployment problem.14. E. Riwa, representative from the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Youth Development presented a paper on the “Role of the Ministry in Facilitating Youth Employment and Job Creation” The presenter briefly outlined some of governmental strategies in fighting youth unemployment in the country. She outlined several government initiatives for youth development: Youth Economic Groups, National Youth Week, Review of the National Youth Policy, Establishment of National Youth Council, Formation of Youth Organizations (Youth –NGOs), Youth Service Scheme Award Programme, and Information and Data Collection for Youth Development. She further explained in detail that at the moment the government is very willing to support youth groups who come out with innovative proposal aimed at solving the problem. She also informed the participants that at the moment the government is preparing the National Employment Strategy. She asked the participants to give their inputs in a matrix form. In her conclusion Ms. Liwa reminded participants to argue intellectually using evidence. She said “you are all from higher learning institutions, so if you want to argue something with the government you need to have three tools which are constitution of the united republic of Tanzania, the ruling party manifesto and the respective policy. You can also have other supporting documents like MKUKUTA, VISION 2025” These are the guiding instruments for the government. He argued participants to read those tools so that they all understand what is going on at the National level.15 Mr. Jonathan Kingu from TMS CONSULTANTS presented a paper on “Self Employment Opportunities through SMEs Franchising Programme”. The presenter explained that franchising is any arrangement in which the owners of a business name; Trade name, trade mark or copy right has licensed others to use it in selling goods or services. With vast experience in business, the presenter briefly explained how his firm works in the fighting youth unemployment. He highlighted some of the areas for employment creation. The presenter volunteered to assist youth groups/organizations which will be formed by seminar participants to start their own business by giving them free consultancy. He provided the participants with contacts so that they can contact him if they are serious about starting their own businesses. He said so far TMS consult has given presentation at the University of Dar es Salaam and they plan to do the same in other institutions.16. Mr. Khalidi Swabiri from University of Dar es Salaam Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC) presented a paper on “The Role of SMEs in Job Creation and Poverty Eradication”. The presenter explained the overview of SME sector in Tanzania. The sector is estimated to generate about a third of GDP, employs about 20% of Tanzanian labour force and has greatest potential for further generation. Indeed, in the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA), SMEs have been identified as a means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). He explained some constraints facing development of SMEs as unfavorable business environment, limited access to finance, lack of power to influence change, limited access to important network, limited access to support services and limited awareness and capacity. However, given its due attention, the presenter told participants that SMEs have greatest employment creation for youths. The challenge is to put policies in place that encourage youths to engage actively and productively in SMEs. He concluded his presentation by acknowledging the current initiatives by the government of fully supporting the growth of welfare to SME sector as an important step towards poverty eradication and job creation. And made his suggestion on what should be done to further strengthen SMEs. The suggestion included establishment of SMEs Bank, promoting SMEs networking through clustering, Government increase its support to SMEs and development of partnership with the government.17 A paper on “The Role of Tourism in Economic Growth and Job Creation” was presented by Mr. Fred Msemwa and Damas Mfugale from the National College of Tourism. The presenters highlighted the role tourism industry is playing in creating youth employment. They further stated that the sector employs more than 200 million people in the world. Around 110,000 were employed in 1996 and currently around 322,000 people are working in the sector in Tanzania. Thus, tourism is a potential area to secure jobs compared to other sector due to rapid growth of the industry. They argued participants to see the possibility of joining the sector instead of complaining that the sector is full of foreigners. They gave an example of hotel managers coming from outside the country. Our universities do not offer degree courses in hospitality, so if the qualification is M.A in hotel management where are you going to get such a candidate. Mind you hotels are meant to save people from different nations and not mere Tanzania.18. Mr. Godwin Kaganda, Lecturer from the Institute of Finance Management presented a paper on “The role of financial Institutions in job creation and Employment “The presenter highlighted the mechanism of financial institutions with regard to provision of financial facilities to youths. He recommended the government and other stakeholders to create enabling environment that will give youth access to enjoy financial facilities in an effort to fight youth unemployment. He concluded his presentation by informing the participants that financial institution relies heavily on the policy of the country, so the government needs to create policies which will influence financial institutions to easy their conditionality for youths to access funds.
.1.1. Forming Groups and SACCOSThe government showed its commitment to solving youth unemployment problem by advising youths to form groups and form SACCOS to enable them get support for self employment. It was recommended that the government should publicize this idea and stipulate clearly what are the criteria for forming such groups. It was suggested that a good group should combine people from different education levels. Other criteria were left to be set by the government.7. RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE GOVERNMENT7.1.2 Setting of desk to deal with youth proposalsIt was recommended that the government should establish a desk which will be responsible for receiving and scrutinizing proposals from youths. Participants suggested that to start with the government can set a desk at the ministry later on go to district level.7.1.3. EducationParticipants were of the opinion that the problem of unemployment does not only emanate from the liberal policies we emulate but also the education we receive from our educational institutions. Participants said that the current education does not meet the needs of the private sector nor self-employment. It prepares youth to take up ready made jobs in the public sector which are not available for all. It was recommended that the government should direct educational institutions to conduct a thoroughly study of the private sector to determine what are the human resources needs and adjust their curriculum accordingly.Also Career guidance and counseling should be introduced in our curriculum so that it guides pupils in choosing their career and future employment with regard to their abilities and interests. So the government should direct teachers colleges to provide this kind of training.7. 1. 4. LanguageLanguage was discussed thoroughly; the participants recommended that, the current language debate of whether Swahili or English is misled. Participants were of the opinion that Tanzanians especially those in learning institutions should master both languages. In the current global economy knowledge of more than one language is an asset. Therefore, the government should invest in both languages English and Kiswahili. 7.1.5. Availability of Official DocumentsIt was recommended that the official documents which are supposed to guide youth and other stakeholders in trying to implement various activities aimed at improving the life of Tanzanians be made available to the public and youths in particular. The documents referred here are the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, Ruling Party Manifesto, the ministry’s policies both Youth Development Policy and Employment Policy. These documents give direction on how to deal with youths’ issues including employment. More ever it is important to have these documents together with programme of implementation in order for youth who are the majority of stakeholders to know the National direction, visions, MKUKUTA, MKURABITA and how they relate to MDGs and their place of action.7.1. 6. The Revised National Youth Development PolicyWhile the workshop was focusing on unemployment problem, the question of the development policy came up very clear. Participants were of the view that, the government should release this document to enable them participate effectively in different public affairs. It was noted that the issue of National Youth Council can hardly materialize if the policy is not yet realized. So the government is requested to release the policy together with the National Youth Council.7. 1. 7. Youth Regional Integration It was recommended that government establish a mechanism through which Tanzanians’ youth will participate in regional integration organs like EAC, SADC, and COMESA. The main reason was that Tanzanians’ youth will need markets and jobs in these member states. However, if there is no established mechanism youth cannot participate effectively and end up complaining about the influx of youth from other countries to Tanzanian labour market. A good example was cited of the East African Community where youth are not participating effectively. It was recommended to the government to establish a youth desk at EAC and SADC.
http://www.ydn.org.za/modules.php?name=VStuff&file=index&func=ShowStuff&SID=12.17-07-2007
The estimated level of urbanisation has increased from 25% in 1998 (UNPOP) to 33% in 2000 (UN Habitat). UN Habitat expects the level of urbanisation in Tanzania to increase to 55% by 2030 (UN Habitat 2002).
In 1995, the literacy rate was estimated at 67.8% (79.4% amongst males and 56.8% amongst females); by 1997 this figure had risen to 84% (UN). The 2002 Human Development Report estimated that the youth (15-24) literacy rate in Tanzania had risen from 77.4% in 1985 to 91.6% in 2000
While in 1998 90% of the labour force were involved in agriculture, this proportion had decreased to 80% by 2002 (CIA). The 2000/01 ILFS showed that agriculture and public sector employment are declining, while private formal and informal sector employment are rising. Agriculture remains predominant.
Tanzania has an economically active population (10 years +) of 17,827,578 (49% male, 51% female), an increase of 58% since the 1990/91 survey (2000/01 ILFS). The participation rate is 83% in rural areas compared to 68% in urban areas, but 84% of those who are employed work on their own farms. The 1991 ILFS found that unemployment was 3.6% (Standard/ILO definition) or 10.6% (6.7% males, 15.5% females) (National/Expanded definition). The 2000/01 ILFS found that unemployment had increased to 5.1% (Standard/ILO definition) or 12.9% (National/Expanded definition). Unemployment levels are on the increase, mainly because of the increase in urban unemployment. Unemployment in urban areas increased from 10.6% (Standard/ILO definition) in 1991 to 14.8% (Standard). According to the National definition, urban unemployment in 2000/01 was 32% compared to 8.4% in rural areas, while Dar es Salaam had an unemployment rate of 46%.
ILFS 2000/01 showed youth unemployment rate is about four times the adult unemployment rate and is growing at double the rate for adult unemployment. According to the National/Expanded definition, 13.36% of all youth aged 15-24 years are unemployed (11.84% of males and 14.82% of females in this age group). In the 10-17 year age group, 11.2% of those in rural areas (28.4% of males and 30.9% of females) and 29.7% in all urban areas (10.6% of males and 11.9% of females) were unemployed. The unemployment rate for this age group in Dar es Salaam alone was 60.8%. (National/Expanded definition) In the 18-34 year age group, 8.6% of those in rural areas (8.9% of males and 8.4% females) and 41.4% of those in all urban areas (33.3% of males and 47.7% of females) were unemployed. The unemployment rate for this age group in Dar es Salaam alone was 55%. (National/Expanded definition). According to the Standard/ILO definition, 6.4% of youth aged 10-17 and 6.2% of youth aged 18-34 are unemployed. 10-17 years: 5.5% in rural areas, 16.3% in all urban areas, 40.3% in Dar es Salaam. 18-34 years: 2.7% in rural areas, 22.4% in all urban areas, 36.4% in Dar es Salaam. It is estimated that between 500,000 and 800,000 youth annually seek to enter the labour market and youth aged 10 to 34 years now represent 73% of the unemployed (from about 60% in 1990/01). 27% of all unemployed are between 15-19.
86.6% (8% from urban areas and 78.6% from rural areas) of economically active youth aged 10-17 and 84% (13.2% from urban and 70.8% from rural areas) of economically active youth aged 18-34 are employed.
83% of employed youth are active in private traditional agriculture, 7.4% in the private informal sector, 5.4% in NGO, Party, Religious or other private organisations, 3.9% do housework duties, 0.2% work for the central or local government and 0.1% for para-statal organisations (2000/01 ILFS).
Youth unemployment in Tanzania is on the increase, as is underemployment. An increasing number of youth is moving to urban centres like Dar es Salaam, but are unable to find work. Suggestion that this is due to lack of skills and work experience, but also that the urban Tanzanian economy is unable to absorb the potential work force.
The major obstacle to the reduction of youth and general unemployment and underemployment is the economy of Tanzania. It is mainly based on agriculture in rural areas and there are very few formal employment activities in the urban centres. Education is deemed very important and there are a number of education initiatives to increase the skills of the work force, but the economy is not necessarily able to absorb a more skilled work force. Therefore, education levels only seem to have a small impact on employment: people with secondary education have an employment rate of between 16%-26%, while those who have only completed primary school have an employment rate of 14%. However, the percentage change in the number of unemployed (standard) overall between 1990/01 to 2000/01 was 125%. Amongst those people without any education the change was 143.7%, amongst those with incomplete primary education the change was 90.9%, while for those with completed primary education the change in the unemployment rate was 113.4%. However, amongst those people who had secondary education or higher, the percentage change was 287.8%, which indicates that education levels are increasing but that there are no jobs to absorb this more skilled workforce. Another problem is lack of experience, as 60.4% of all unemployed have no work experience. Policy often focuses on agriculture, self-employment and less formal job opportunities, especially for youth, but there is no information about how successful this is.
Effects of government policy on youth (un)employment
Government policy focuses on education and the promotion of entrepreneurship and the informal sector to combat youth unemployment. However, there are no indications if such initiatives have been implemented or if they have had any effect on youth unemployment (statistics suggest that they have not). Other proposed strategies include the development of the agricultural sector, although this does not appear to be a viable strategy for economic development overall.
Key Challenges for youth
While there is no data of youth opinion in Tanzania, statistics suggest that unemployment and HIV/AIDS must be acknowledged as major problems by youth. Youth unemployment is increasing at a much greater rate than that of older age groups, despite the fact that youth aged 15 to 24 years represent less than 20% of the total population. Although there are a number of government and donor initiatives to combat youth unemployment, these do not seem to have any discernible effect and it seems unlikely that this will change in the foreseeable future. Tanzania is generally grouped as one of the countries most affected by HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa, and as a result a substantial number of awareness programmes have been implemented in the country by government, foreign donors and international NGOs like PSI. Awareness of HIV/AIDS issues amongst youth is generally assumed to be fairly good due to these initiatives. However, lack of other income-earning opportunities apparently drives many urban females towards prostitution and infection rates are on the increase amongst this group.

AMAZING USAMBARA MOUNTAINS.

East Usambara Mountains: An overview
Geographical history.
Amani Nature Reserve is located in the East Usambara region. This is part of the Eastern Arc Mountains, an isolated mountain chain of ancient crystalline rock formed through a cycle of block faulting and erosion, which stretches from the Taita Hills in Kenya down to the Southern Highlands in Tanzania. Due to their age, status as forest ‘islands’ and role as condensers of moisture from the Indian Ocean, the Eastern Arc forests are rich in endemic species (Hamilton, 1989). Many species have been geographically separated from their closest relatives for long periods. The mountains appear to serve both as a refuge for formerly widespread flora and fauna (Iversen, 1991) as well as centres of speciation (Fjeldsaa, 1997). Patches of forests, such as Amani Nature Reserve, have been likened to the African equivalent of the Galapagos Islands in terms of their endemism and biodiversity, therefore, considered to be one of the most important forest blocks in Africa.
Flora and fauna of the Usambara Mountains
Of the approx 3450 species of vascular plants recorded in the Usambara Mountains, over one quarter are likely to be endemic or near-endemic. In addition to the variety of plants, the mountains host a number of endemic or rare fauna species, including the Usambara eagle owl and a vivaparous frog species.
Human impacts
Over the past century, depletion of forests through logging activities and increasing clearance of forest areas for small-scale farm plots, has become a serious problem in forest management throughout the Usambaras. One of the most obvious and deleterious effects of this deforestation is soil erosion. The East Usambaras are an important water catchment area for lowland populations and so siltation through soil erosion causes a major problem for management in the area.
Amani Nature Reserve: facts & figures
Longitude/Latitude: 5°14’10’’ - 5°04’30’’ S, 38°30’34’’ - 38°40’06’’ E
Elevation: Approx 190 m – 1130 m above sea level
Topography: Catchment of Sigi river
Forest vegetation: Submontane, lowland and plantation forests
Forest area: The largest single block of forest in the East Usambara Mountains and is
connected to northern forest blocks only by the Derema forest corridor on public land
Hectares: 8360 ha
Status: Nature Reserve, gazetted in 1997, and a Man and Biosphere Reserve
Mean annual rainfall: 1,910mm per annum
Mean maximum temperature: 24.1 C
Mean minimum temperature: 16.3 C
UTM: 94 21640 - 94 39000 S, 45 0600 - 46 3200 E

Summary of biodiversity in Amani Nature Reserve
Please note this may not be a complete guide, but does give an idea of the species present.
Taxon
Total no. of species
% forest dependent
No. of non-forest species
No. of endemic species
No. of near-endemic species
No. of forest dependent endemics and near-endemics
Trees and shrubs
264*
367**
8***
43%
22
19
49
53
Mammals
59
(includes 16 bat species)
15.3%
6
0
3
2
Birds
65
33.8%
15
2
3
3
Reptiles
49
46.7%
6
3
15
17
Amphibians
27
66.6%
0
2
14
16
Butterflies
112
20.5%
4
1
10
9
Total
943
n/a
53
27
94
100

(Frontier)
* Species recorded in vegetation plots
**Species recorded opportunistically
***Species recorded in the regeneration plots only
History of Amani
Amani Nature Reserve was gazetted in 1997, amalgamating six forest reserves (Amani-Sigi, Amani-east, Amani-west, Kwamsambia, Kwamkoro and Mnyuzi Scarp), public land and 1068ha of forest donated by the East Usambara Tea Company into Tanzania’s first nature reserve.
History of Amani Botanical Gardens
The Amani Botanical Garden, was set up by the Germans in 1902 as an extensive arboretum of long-term botanical trial plots for exotic plant species. Species were introduced from various parts of the world for agricultural trials with different economic interests such as medicinal (ie Cinchona spp.), fruit and spices (e.g. Garcinic spp.), valuable timber (e.g Cedrela, Eucalyptus), cosmetic (ie Cananga), rubber, fibre, oil (e.g. Hevea) and ornamental (e.g. fan palms). In 1950, the Botanical Garden was closed by the British. Today a lot of these botanical plots are derelict and bear local naturalization (48 spp listed by Shiel in 1994). Alien species introduced by the Botanical Garden are a large conservation issue for the Amani Nature Reserve.
The Amani Botanical Garden has a gazetted area of 244ha, however, some parts are outside legal protection (106ha), the majority of which is occupied by National Institute for Medical Research (62ha) and 44ha is ungazetted public land. Encroachment into the botanical gardens has occured, especially in the non-gazetted areas. These include new buildings and other human activities such as grazing, vegetable gardens, are mainly all around Amani village where part of NIMR is located. The Amani Botanical Garden therefore has several stakeholders responsible for its management: the Ministry of Agriculture, TAFORI, NIMR which can complicate the situation.

FLORA OF THE EASTERN USAMBARAS & AMANI
Vegetation cover of East Usambara Mountains
• The East Usambara forests are composed of 13 forest blocks, although there are current efforts to link some of these with corridors.
• Approximately 45,137ha of the East Usambara Mountains remains as natural forest. 30.6% is classified as submontane rainforest and 63% as lowland forest. Altitude is the factor differentiating these forest types (Hamilton, 1989), with submontane forest generally occurring above 850m.
• Moreau (1935) stated that prior to European colonization in 1880’s, there was virtually a continuous forest cover on the mountains except for grassland habitat along the western ridge tops.

Land-use distribution in Amani Nature Reserve
Habitat type Area (hectares) % of area
Dense lowland forest 2199.2 35.5
Poorly stocked lowland forest 421.3 6.8
Dense submontane forest 2816.5 45.4
Poorly stocked submontane 1.8 0.03
Peasant cultivation 36.7 0.6
Cultivation under forest 18.1 0.3
Maesopsis plantation 508.5 8.2
Teak plantation 83.9 1.4
Tea plantation 6.5 0.1
Eucalyptus plantations 1.7 0.03
Bush 96.5 1.6
Settlement 7.3 0.12
Barren 1.5 0.02
Pond and rivers 1.1 0.02
Total 6200.6ha 100%
(Johansson and Sandy, 1996)
Note: This table does not include the public land and the 1068 ha of Tea Estate forest that was incorporated into the nature reserve.
Also not mentioned is that within the Submontane forests is small plantations of Japanese campher (Cinnamomum camphora).
Endemic plants in Amani
An estimated 23% of montane plant species are endemic to the Eastern Arc. Such species include 15 wild relatives of coffee and 20 African violet species. The most commonly recorded near-endemic tree and shrub species in Amani Nature Reserve are: Leptonychia usambarensis, Cephalosphaera usambarensis and Allanblackia stuhlmannii.
Allanblackia is commonly seen around the Amani field station, with large fruits up to 12 inches in length which may contain 40-50 seeds. The kernels produce a hard white fat can be extracted and used as soap or in cooking.
Introduced (aliens and invasive) species
Isolated "island" systems are thought to be most at risk from plant invasions. Localised naturalisation is quite common around Amani Nature Reserve as a result of the human encroachment and the Amani Botanical Gardens. Clidemia and Lantana are major invasives in Amani Nature Reserve. They may be influencing successionary processes because of their prevalence (Fowler and Nyambo, 1996). There are other species in Eastern Usambaras which are known to exhibit invasive tendencies elsewhere e.g. Grevillea, Casuarina, Cinnamomum, Cupressus. See the following section for a more complete list on the invasive plants in Amani.

Examples of introduced plants in Amani
• Cedrela odorata (Meliacae) has now spread from Amani Botanical Gardens to natural forest. Local communities plant it on their farms because it produces good timber tree. It originates from Neotropics and the Americas.
• *Clidemia hirta was introduced to Amani and has now spread to most forests in the surrounding areas. It is the only site in East Africa. It is a serious weed in other tropical moist areas, eg Hawaii. It originates from the Neotropics and the Americas.
• Elettaria cardamonum (Zingiberaceae) is now naturalised in derelict sites. Invasive in Sri Lanka, it originated in Asia.
• *Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) may inhibit regeneration in larger gaps. From Neotropics and the Americas. It is also invasive in forests in southern Africa.
• * Psidium cettoleauum (Guava) was considered the worst weed of closed forests. It may only be a recent introduction to Eastern Usambaras. Originates from Neotropics and the Americas.
• *Rubus Their fruit, called bramble fruit, is an aggregate of drupelets.
• *Phyllostachys bambusoides (Bamboo) from Asia.
• *Maesopsis eminii (see below).
• *Landolphia sp. This is commonly known as the Congo vine.

*These are species that are considered a problem or threat (naturalised).
Case study of an introduced species: Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae)
• It occurs naturally in western Tanzania.
• First planted in 1913, it was a shade tree for Cephalospahera usambarensis (eg the Kwamkoro tea plot).
• About 580ha was also used for planting carried out to infill logging gaps.
• Seeds last approximately eight months. No one knows for sure what pollinates it.
• It was thought Maesopsis would not be able to regenerate naturally without management, but is now naturalized and dominates considerable areas of forest.
• Since the introduction of Maesopsis eminii into the area this species has spread rapidly in the Usambara Mountains particularly around Amani where there is concern that it may begin to dominate the forest (Binggeli, 1989). The high Maesopsis eminii density areas e.g. near the Kwamkoro Nature Trail, are the areas of forest where the species was originally planted, and/or forest edge plots.
• There has been much debate on the potential threat of this species, however, it is largely a pioneer species which doesn’t regenerate in the dense forest.

FAUNA OF AMANI
VERTEBRATES
Endemism
• There are 74 endemic vertebrates in the Eastern Arc (and another 18 endemic to lowland coastal Eastern Arc forests).
• Most of these 74 endemic vertebrates are forest dependent, including all the strict endemic bird, mammals and amphibians.

Mammals
The most commonly recorded small mammal species in Amani are shrews (Crocidura sp.) and African soft-furred rats (Praomys sp.). The most common larger species is the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis neumanni), while black and white colobus monkey (Colobus angolensis palliates) is also seen. In the evenings, bushbabies are commonly heard around the camp.
There are an estimated 16 species of bat from 5 families. Bat species that appear to be locally common are: Rhinolophus landeri lobatus, Rhinolophus hildebrandti, Hipposideros ruber, Miniopterus fraterculus and Pipistrellus grandidieri grandidieri.

Six percent of all Eastern Arc mammal species are endemic, most of which are threatened. In the Amani Nature Reserve, there are at least 24 species of mammals (excluding bats) from seven families. There are several species of special interest. These include:
• The restricted Zanj elephant shrew, Rhynchocyon petersi, which is common in the Usambara Mountains (Collar and Stuart 1987) yet listed as globally ‘Endangered’ by IUCN due to a decline in habitat extent and quality;
• The eastern tree hyrax, Dendrohyrax validus, listed as ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (Hilton-Taylor, 2000);
• The lesser pouched rat, Beamys hindei which is also considered ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (Hilton-Taylor, 2000);

Birds
Three percent of all bird species in the Eastern Arc are endemic. Within the East Usambara Mountains there is a high diversity with at least 110 forest bird species (Stuart 1989). There are a few globally-threatened avian species (Collar & Stewart 1985, IUCN 1996), all found in Amani region but at low densities.
Endemic birds of Eastern Usambaras
Common name
Scientific name
IUCN threat category
Usambara eagle owl
Bubo vosseleri
Endemic/ vulnerable
Dappled mountain robin
Arcanator orostruthus
Vulnerable
Long-billed apalis
Orthotomus moreaui
Critically endangered
Amani sunbird
Anthreptes pallidigaster
Vulnerable
Banded green sunbird
Anthreptes rubritorques
Vulnerable
Tanzanian mountain weaver
Ploceus nicolli
Endemic/ vulnerable
Sokoke scops owl
Otus ireneae
Vulnerable
East coast akalat
Sheppardia gunningi
Vulnerable
Mrs Moreau’s warbler
Bathmocercus winifredae
Endemic/vulnerable

Reptiles and Amphibians
With 7 chameleon species and 26 snake species, Amani Nature Reserve has a rich reptilian fauna.
The most commonly recorded reptile species are: The geckos (Cnemaspis africana and Cnemaspis barbouri), the skinks (Mabuya maculilabris, Mabuya striata, Lygosoma afrum, Leptosiaphos kilimensis), and an agama lizard (Agama agama).
Common chameleon species are: Bradypodion (Chamaeleo) fischer, Bradypodion (Chamaeleo) tenue, Chamaeleo dilepis, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, Rhampholeon temporalis.
Common snake species are: Typhlops gierrai, Python sebae, Atheris ceratophorus, Elapsoidea nigra, Dendroaspis angusticeps, Lamprophis capensis, Buhoma (Geodipsas) vauerocegae, Aparallactus werneri, Natriciteres olivacea, Philothamnus macrops, Philothamnus hoplogaster, Crotaphopeltis tornieri, and Thelotornis capensis mossambicanus.
With 35 amphibian species Amani Nature Reserve has a particularly rich amphibian fauna, 8 of which are endemic (see below for full list).
FROGS
DESCRIPTION
Arthroleptis affinis
Medium sized, brown, forest floor, lay eggs in leaf litter
A.stenodactylus
Medium sized, brown, forest floor
Schoutedenella xenodactylus
Small, brown, forest floor
S.xenodactyloides
Small, brown, forest floor
Bufo brauni
Large, brown, forest floor, near stream
Nectophrynoides tornieri
Small, brown, forest floor, life-bearing
Afrixalus fornasini
Medium, brown, in pond, grey morphs, vertical pupils

A.uluguruensis
Medium, brown, in pond, grey morphs, vertical pupils
Hyperolius argus
Small, in pond, female: green, male: red/brown with spots, horizontal pupils, for all Hyperolius
H.mitchelli
Small, in pond, two light strips along flanks, light spots on ‘heel’
H.parkeri
Small, green/brown, in pond, with small spots
H.puncticulatus
Small, pond, various different types of spots on an orange background, often a mask on their face
H.spinigularis
Small, pond, green with light mask
H.tuberilinguis
Small, pond, brown/green, rare
H.viridiflavus mariae
Small, pond, red-grey, black eyes, red finger pads
Kassina maculata
Large, pond, under vegetation in mud, green/brown with darker spots, more heard than seen
K.senegalensis
Large, pond, under vegetation in mud, green/brown, with darker strips, more heard than seen
Leptopelis barbouri
Medium, treefrog, green-yellow with reddish eyes, only seen after rain when it descends
L.flavomaculatus
Large, treefrog, brown, commonly heard around the pond, green juveniles, vertical pupils
L.parkeri
Large, treefrog, grey-brown, red eyes, only seen after rain when it descends
L.uluguruensis
Medium, treefrog, blue throat and light spots on brownish coat, only seen after rain
L.vermiculatus
Large, treefrog, green or brown, usually has a dappled dorsal coat. Green juveniles
Callulina kreffti
Small, forest frog but tends to be found above the ground, stout, grey, warty-skin, expands as a defense mechanism
Hoplophryne rogersi
Small, forest frog, brown, breeds in water fulled-bamboo cups, quite common
Probreviceps macrodactylus
Large, treefrog, stout, short legs, brown, forest floor, releases sticky substance to attach itself to the female and as a defense mechanism
Arthroleptides martiensseni
Medium, forest floor, near streams, brown, usually with black strip over the eyes
Phrynobatrachus acridoides
Small, forest floor, brown
P.kreffti
Medium, stream, brown, males with yellow throat, is uncommonily diurnal
Ptychadena mascareniensis
Medium, pond, brown with green dorsal strip, long legs
Rana angolensis
Large, stream, brown-grey with loud deep croak, jumps very far
Xenopus muelleri
Medium, muddy-puddles, dark grey, only in water (aquatic), have claws and webbed feet
Xenopus laevis
Medium, muddy-puddles, dark grey, only in water (aquatic), have claws and webbed feet with tentacle under the eye
CAECILIANS (APODANS)
DESCRIPTION
Boulengerula boulengeri
Approx. 15cm, pink, burrowing, look like an earthworms, common
Scolecomorhpus vittatus
Approx. 45cm, dark blue with bright red on the ventral, come out on rainy nights, rare

The locally uncommon species that are both forest dependent and near-endemic or endemic species should be of conservation concern due to their low population density. There are ten such reptilian and amphibian species. These are: Bradypodion spinosum, Agama mossambica montana, Probreviceps macrodactylus, Urocotyledon wolterstorffi, Scelotes ulugurensis, Leptotyphlops macrops, Dipsadoboa werneri, Hyperolius mariae and Scolecomorphus vittatus.
INVERTEBRATES
The invertebrates are not well-studied and our current knowledge is probably strongly influenced by collecting effort. The insect fauna of the Amani region is diverse and includes some spectacular species. Butterflies are common in both open areas and in the forest, and a diverse range of species can be seen. Trails of driver ants (Formicidae: Dorylus sp.) will be encountered on roads and tracks, and the galleries and nests of termites (Isoptera) can be seen on tree trunks. Crickets (Gryllidae) are numerous in the forest, and can be heard almost everywhere. Other Orthoptera, including several families of grasshoppers, comprise a substantial component of the insect fauna.

Moths can easily be seen by the use of an illuminated sheet will attract a wide range at night from large and spectacular members of the families Saturnidae and Sphingidae to tiny Microlepidoptera. Other moth families that commonly come to light include the Arctiidae, Geometridae and Noctuidae. Beating and sweeping forest vegetation yields a rich insect fauna including many species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) and weevils (Curculionidae) as well as bugs (Hemiptera). Pitfall trapping and sieving litter from the forest floor are good methods for collecting ground-inhabiting fauna. The dominant beetle groups are rove beetles (Staphylinidae) and dried fruit beetles (Nitidulidae), with some ground beetles (Carabidae) and a few dung beetles (Scarabaeidae). Cockroaches (Blattodea) are common in the litter.
Those invertebrate groups that have been studied in the East Usambara Mountains show high rates of endemism, especially those whose members have limited dispersal capability. Generally there tend to be great endemism in poor dispersers such as millipedes. At least 30 of the 41 species of millipedes (Diplopoda) found around Amani are believed to be endemic to the East Usambara Mountains. Of the terrestrial molluscs (Gastropoda) the East Usambaras has 55 endemic species of gastropods.
In a family of predatory wasps (Sphecidae), a considerably more mobile group, the proportion of endemic species is still high at 21%. Of the 112 species of butterflies recorded from Amani, two species are probably endemic, and a further nine are near endemic. While 20% of all butterfly species recorded are forest dependent, over 80% of the endemics and near endemics are forest dependent, and all are forest species. The spectacular Hypolimnas antevorta (Nymphalidae) is a large, blue-black and blue butterfly with white markings that is endemic to the East Usambaras and feeds on Urera hypselodendron (Urticaceae). Charaxes usambarae usambarae (Nymphalidae) is another large species, also endemic or near endemic that feeds on Albizia (Fabaceae). Forest ground beetles are likely to be endemic, as they are often flightless; a study in the nearby Uluguru Mountains, showed 94% of carabid beetle species believed to be endemic.
MANAGEMENT OF ANR
The forests of the East Usambaras have been under continuous exploitative human pressure for at least 2,000 years (Schmidt 1989). Until the last centuary, this pressure was sustainable (Kikula 1989). However, tea estates now employ roughly 4000 people in the high season and this growing human population is leading to increased pressure on the remaining natural forest in the area.
Amani Nature Reserve encompasses a large area within which there are numerous villages and sub-villages. People from the local communities are permitted to collect dead wood from the nature reserve for fuel-wood twice a week. Any changes in the management of Amani Nature Reserve will impact upon the adjacent communities; thus management decisions are not isolated to consideration of forest issues alone. Management issues are discussed at biannual Amani Nature Reserve Board meetings attended by representatives of all interested parties, including local communities.
Disturbance
Poles continue to be taken illegally from across the reserve. Areas of particularly high levels of new pole cutting are on the eastern side of the reserve. Evidence of pit-sawing is observed throughout the reserve however no active saw-pits are being recorded at the moment. Fire is a threat to specific areas of the forest; extensive patches of forest are continuously being burnt. Open grass/bushland habitats dominate in burnt areas. It is possible that the fires are limiting forest expansion within the Nature Reserve. The impact of fire is of serious concern on the southern and western borders of Amani Nature Reserve. Hunting continues illegally, the full impact of hunting on the populations of targeted species is unknown.
Conservation
The forests of the East Usambara Mountains are recognised as being part of a Biodiversity Hotspot (Myers et al, 2000), an Endemic Bird Area (ICBP, 1992), a Centre of Plant Diversity (WWF and IUCN) and a Globally Important Ecoregion (WWF), it is also a member of the Man and Biosphere Reserve network (MAB). These forests are a conservation priority due to their floral and faunal diversity, and to the high number of endemic species.

The forests of the East Usambara Mountains have been reduced to fragments within a matrix of agricultural land. Little forest remains outside of the gazetted forest reserves. For those species that are forest dependent, the forest reserves now provide almost the only available habitat. Amani Nature Reserve being the largest forest block in the East Usambara Mountains, has a lower risk of population extinction than smaller highly fragmented forest reserves. This gives Amani Nature Reserve a special value as a ‘pool’ of individuals of species. However, Amani is largely isolated from other forest reserves in the East Usambara Mountains, the only forested connection is the Derema forest corridor to translocate any species to repopulated other forested areas. At present, no legal status protects the Derema forest, other than basic legislation regarding water catchments and the felling of specific tree species. Recently there has been extensive discussion regarding the type of legislation that should be instated to protect the Derema forest corridor (pers. comm. Dr Veli Pohjonen, Jambiya. 2000.). The proposals range from gazetting the Derema forest corridor as a non-extractive forest reserve, to handing complete control of the forests to the local communities. From a biological perspective, effective protection of this only forested link from the largest block of forest (Amani) to more northerly forests is of up-most importance. However this decision is not purely based on biological considerations, social factors have to be taken into account to ensure the sustainable protection of the Derema forest corridor.

Map of East Africa showing tectonic plates

USGS, 5 May 1999

New fossil finds shed light on earliest human ancestors

By Jim Genova, People's Weekly World, 2 September 1995, pg. 15

Recent fossil discoveries in Kenya have sharpened debate on the earliest origins of humans and has thrown open the question of how long hominids (as all human species are known) have walked upright.

Leg and arm bones of about 21 individuals and a few jaw bones were found near Lake Turkana last month and have been dated to between 3.9 and 4.4 million years ago. They are said to belong to a new species called Australopithecus Anamensis, and show distinct traits indicating that they walked upright - a finding that pushes~ the earliest known date for hominid bipedalism back about half a million years.

The jaw bones show ape-like characteristics - placement of the teeth, small ear openings in the skull. But the teeth also show characteristics which are unique to humans - namely, the tooth enamel is much thicker than apes, a feature common to hominids.

According to the international team of paleontologists working on the siite, the arm and leg bones clearly belong to a species of upright walkers. The upper part of the shin bone is shaped so as to bear much more weight than the four-legged apes, thus allowing the hominid to walk erect. This feature was crucial for allowing later increases in brain size. With upright walking, humans were able to free more air and blood to flow to the brain, allowing it to grow. The body was better able to cool itself and the hands were freed to be used creating tools and processing foot.

Since these finds belong to a species much older than that of the fameous Lucy fossils discovered in the 1970s, many paleontologists and anthropologists are faced with a radical rethinking of previous assumptions on human lineage. It now seems, according to Dr. Meave Leakey of the National Museums of Kenya and wife of noted fossil hunter Dr. Richard Leakey, that there were a number of hominid species coexisting during man's formative years. Several of the earliest hominids may simply have died out and may have no relation to Homo Sapiens Sapiens, the sole surviving hominid species.

This has opened a new field of inquiry into how the earliest hominids, if at all, interacted with one another - Were they bitter rivals, with one species killing off another? Did they cooperate with one another? Or, did they keep their distance and occupy different and unrelated niches in the food chain of East Africa?

These latest finds may help in the understanding of man's relation to the apes and to other surviving species. If paleontologists and anthropologists can piece together the life styles of the earliest hominids, it may aid in the understanding of human nature, instinct and climatic and genetic traits which eventually led to the rapid increase in human brain size and to the evolution of human culture.

UP THERE IS A MAP OF EAST AFRICA

Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center)—a so-called triple junction (or triple point), where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone.